Formal Fallacy: Syllogistic Fallacy

A syllogistic fallacy occurs when the conclusion of a syllogism, which is a logical argument consisting of two premises and a conclusion, is invalid or unsupported by the premises.

• Examples:

1. All goods that are scarce are valuable. 
   Diamonds are scarce.
   Therefore, diamonds are the most valuable goods.
   This is a fallacy because it confuses scarcity with absolute value, ignoring other factors that contribute to a good's value.
   
   
2. All profitable companies are large companies. 
   Company X is profitable.
   Therefore, Company X is large.
   This overlooks the fact that there are many small companies that are also profitable.
   
   
3. All birds have feathers.
   All penguins have feathers.
   Therefore, all penguins are birds.
   This is incorrect because not all creatures with feathers are birds. 
   
   
4. All radioactive elements are dangerous.
   Some medical treatments use radioactive elements.
   Therefore, all medical treatments using radioactive elements are dangerous.
   This ignores the controlled and beneficial use of radioactivity in treatments like cancer therapy.
   

Recognizing these fallacies is crucial for scientific reasoning and critical thinking.

Types of Syllogistic Fallacies

A range of syllogistic fallacies may manifest themselves in an argument, including:

                    A. Syllogistic Undistributed Middle Fallacy

The syllogistic undistributed middle fallacy is a logical error that occurs when the middle term in a categorical syllogism is not distributed, meaning it does not apply to all members of the category it is supposed to represent.

• Examples:

1. All cats are animals

All dogs are animals,

So, all cats are dogs.

2. All athletes have strong muscles

All dancers have strong muscles,

So, all athletes are dancers.

3. All painkillers make you feel better

All sleeping pills make you feel better,

So, painkillers help you sleep.

4. All humans have a genome 

All patients with a particular disease have a genome,

All humans must have this disease,

5. All substances that react to light are chemicals 

All stars react to light,

then all stars must be chemicals,

It oversimplifies complex astronomical phenomena.

It's crucial to distribute the middle term properly to avoid such fallacies and ensure accurate and logical reasoning across disciplines. 

                    B. Syllogistic Illicit Major Fallacy 

The syllogistic illicit major fallacy occurs when the major term is universal in the conclusion but not in the premises.

• Examples:

1. All drugs have potential side effects;

Some treatments are drugs;

Therefore, some treatments have potential side effects.

While the conclusion may be true, it is not supported by the premises because not all treatments are drugs.

2. All forces produce acceleration;

Gravity is a force;

Therefore, gravity always produces acceleration,

It is ignoring that gravity can be counteracted by other forces.

3. All genetic mutations cause disease;

Some diseases are genetic;

Therefore, some diseases are caused by mutations,

It is failing to acknowledge that not all mutations lead to disease.

4. All brain activities involve neurons;

Some brain activities are conscious thoughts;

Therefore, some conscious thoughts involve neurons,
While true, it is not a valid conclusion from the premises provided.

5. All brains can process information

Some computers can process information,

Some computers must be brains. 

6. All stars are celestial bodies 

All planets are celestial bodies, 

All planets must be stars. 

7. All forces can cause motion 

Gravity is a force, 

Gravity must cause all motion.

8. All humans have DNA 

Some bacteria have DNA, 

Some bacteria must be humans. 

These examples illustrate how the illicit major fallacy can lead to incorrect conclusions across various disciplines. Understanding and identifying such fallacies is crucial for critical thinking and accurate reasoning in both scientific and everyday contexts.

                    C. Syllogistic Illicit Minor Fallacy 

The syllogistic illicit minor fallacy occurs when the conclusion of a syllogism improperly distributes the minor term, leading to an erroneous conclusion. 

• Examples:

1. All humans have a cardiovascular system 

All athletes are humans, 

Then all humans must be athletes, 

It is clearly not the case. 

2. All high-tech companies have experienced significant growth in the past decade. 

Some high-tech companies have started using artificial intelligence. 

Therefore, all companies using artificial intelligence have experienced significant growth in the past decade.

This reasoning is flawed because it assumes that all entities within a subset (companies using artificial intelligence) share the same characteristic (significant growth) based on a partial observation of the subset (some high-tech companies).

3. All doctors have medical degrees 

Some employees at a hospital have medical degrees, 

All employees at the hospital are doctors. 

4. Some multinational companies are profitable. 

Some multinational companies are in the renewable energy sector. 

Therefore, all companies in the renewable energy sector are profitable.

This conclusion is fallacious because it incorrectly assumes that what is true for some multinationals is true for all companies in a particular sector.

5. All effective medications have undergone clinical trials. 

Aspirin has undergone clinical trials. 

Therefore, all medications are effective,

It erroneously generalizes the effectiveness of all medications based on aspirin alone. 

Recognizing and avoiding this fallacy is crucial for clear and accurate reasoning across various scientific disciplines.

                    D. Syllogistic Exclusive Premises Fallacy 

The Syllogistic Exclusive Premises Fallacy is a logical error that occurs when both premises in a syllogism are negative, leading to a conclusion that is not logically supported by the premises.

Major Premise: All A are B;

Minor Premise: No C are B;

Conclusion: therefore, No C are A,

Both the major premise (All A are B) and minor premise (No C are B) refer to different terms (A and C), making it impossible for the conclusion (No C are A) to be logically valid. 

• Examples:

1. Major Premise: No healthy cells are cancerous cells

Minor Premise: No cancerous cells are immune to treatment

Conclusion: No healthy cells are immune to treatment.

This is fallacious because the negative premises do not logically support the conclusion. 

2. Major Premise: No stable economies are without fluctuations

Minor Premise: No economies with fluctuations are predictable

Conclusion: No stable economies are predictable.

3. Major Premise: A celestial body is not a planet

Minor Premise: It is not a star

Conclusion:  it must be a comet.

This is fallacious because the exclusion of two categories does not necessarily result in a third being the default category.

4. No healthy person lacks exercise; 

no sick person exercises,

Therefore, no sick person is healthy,

It is a fallacy because the premises do not logically support the conclusion. 

5. No drug is without side effects; 

no cure is without a drug,

Therefore, no cure is without side effects,

It is ignoring other therapeutic methods that may not involve drugs. 

6. No medication is universal; 

no disease is curable by all medications,

Therefore, no disease is curable,

It is fallacious as it overlooks the specificity of treatments. 

7. No planets are stars; 

no stars are living organisms,

Therefore, no planets are living organisms,

8. No gene is responsible for all traits; 

no trait is determined by a single gene,

Therefore, no gene is responsible for any trait,

It is clearly incorrect. 

9. No economic system is perfect; 

no policy is without economic impact,

Therefore, no policy is perfect,

 It fails to consider the nuances of economic theories and policies. 

10. No politician is infallible;

No policy is universally accepted

Therefore, no policy is infallible,

It is a fallacy as it conflates the fallibility of individuals with the potential efficacy of policies.

These examples demonstrate how the fallacy of exclusive premises can lead to incorrect conclusions across various fields. This type of fallacy can often be deceptive, as on the surface, the argument may appear to be sound due to its formal structure, but upon closer inspection, it becomes clear that there is a flaw in reasoning. As such, it is essential to be aware of syllogistic exclusive premises fallacies in order to identify and avoid them in their own arguments and those of others.

Conclusion:

Syllogistic fallacies are errors in reasoning that happen when the premises of a syllogism are not logically valid, leading to faulty conclusions. Some types of syllogistic fallacies include Syllogistic Undistributed Middle Fallacy, Syllogistic Illicit Major Fallacy, Syllogistic Illicit Minor Fallacy, and Syllogistic Exclusive Premises. It's crucial to recognize these fallacies to prevent making invalid arguments and reaching wrong conclusions in reasoning.

Points to Ponder:

All forces can cause motion 

Gravity is a force, 

Gravity must cause all motion.

What type of Syllogistic fallacy is this?