World PhiloMathematics & Design Society

The Suppressed Evidence fallacy, also known as the fallacy of suppressed evidence, cherry-picking, or Furtive fallacy, involves emphasizing certain aspects or evidence while hiding others to support a particular conclusion as well as significant outcomes are attributed to clandestine or deceptive actions, often involving a conspiracy or hidden misconduct by decision-makers. Also, if a researcher were to selectively report only the data that supports their hypothesis while disregarding data that contradicts it, they would be committing the Suppressed Evidence Fallacy. This fallacy can be particularly detrimental in fields that rely heavily on empirical evidence and objective analysis. Examples:  In economics , when evaluating the impact of a new tax policy, one might only highlight the positive effects on government revenue while ignoring the negative outcomes such as reduced consumer spending or business investment. The selective presentation of economic data to argue for a specifi...

The false dilemma fallacy, also known as the either/or fallacy , or the false dichotomy fallacy , is a common logical fallacy in which the arguer presents only two options as being available, when in reality there are more choices to consider .  This type of reasoning fails to consider a range of alternatives and forces a black-and-white view on complex issues. This fallacy is often used in complex issues and manipulate audiences into accepting a limited set of options.  Examples: In science , one might encounter the false dilemma in debates about nature versus nurture, where it is argued that a particular behavior is caused either by genetics or by the environment, neglecting the possibility of an interaction between the two. In physiology , this fallacy might manifest in the oversimplified view that one must either adhere strictly to natural remedies or rely solely on pharmaceutical interventions, ignoring the nuanced reality that a combination of both approaches can be bene...

False attribution fallacy involves citing irrelevant, biased, or unqualified information to support an argument. The false attribution fallacy is a common logical fallacy in which one incorrectly attributes a particular cause or source to a certain effect or outcome. This type of fallacy is often used to manipulate or deceive others in order to support a particular agenda or belief. Examples: In the realm of physiology , an elevated heart rate could be attributed to a person's anxious nature, rather than the immediate physical activity they are engaged in. In medicine , the fallacy can result in misdiagnosis, where symptoms are attributed to common illnesses without considering rare diseases or external causes like exposure to toxins. Pharmacy professionals might fall into this trap by attributing a patient's non-response to medication to their non-compliance, rather than potential drug interactions or genetic factors affecting drug metabolism. Astronomers could mistakenly attr...

False causation, also known as post hoc ergo propter hoc or false cause fallacy, causal fallacy or faulty causality, is a common logical fallacy that occurs when a cause-and-effect relationship is wrongly assumed without sufficient evidence to support it. This is a flawed conclusion because either such a relationship does not exist, or the evidence supporting it is insufficient. These fallacies can be particularly misleading in fields that rely heavily on empirical evidence and logical reasoning. Examples: In economics , one might observe that as ice cream sales increase, the rate of drowning deaths also increases. However, concluding that ice cream sales cause drowning would be a false cause fallacy; the actual cause is the warmer weather, which is a common factor that increases both the likelihood of people swimming and purchasing ice cream. One might observe that when interest rates fall, stock prices rise and conclude that lower interest rates cause the stock market to boom. Howeve...

The fallacy of quoting out of context, also known as contextomy or quote mining, is an informal logical fallacy where a passage is removed from its surrounding matter in such a way that its intended meaning is distorted. This can be done intentionally, to mislead or persuade by deception, or unintentionally, due to misunderstanding of the passage's significance in its original context. The fallacy of quoting out of context is a pervasive issue that can distort the understanding and interpretation of information across various fields. Examples: In science , excerpts from scientific studies can be misleadingly cited to support commercial products or policies, when the complete study might not draw such definitive conclusions. In economics , this could manifest as selectively citing economic data or a statement from an economist to support a particular viewpoint, while ignoring other relevant information that would provide a more comprehensive understanding.  An economist's nuance...

The fallacy of division is a logical error that involves assuming that what is true for a whole is also true for its individual parts. This type of reasoning can lead to incorrect conclusions in various fields.  Examples: In physiology , one might erroneously conclude that because the human body can resist certain temperatures, each cell can do the same, which is not necessarily the case.  In medicine , it might be assumed that if a medication works for a population, it will work for every individual within that group, disregarding personal allergies or conditions.  In pharmacy , one might think that if a compound has a specific effect, each component of that compound must have the same effect, which overlooks the complexity of chemical interactions. In dentistry , one might think that if sugar causes cavities, then every individual who consumes sugar will develop cavities, failing to consider oral hygiene and individual susceptibility. In genetics , it could be the mista...

The fallacy of composition arises when it is assumed that what is true for individual members of a group must be true for the group as a whole.  Examples: If each component of a machine operates quietly, one might incorrectly conclude that the machine as a whole operates quietly, which may not be the case due to the interaction of parts.  In physiology , for instance, the fallacy of composition might lead one to assume that if a single cell can generate energy, then the entire organism must be brimming with energy, ignoring the complex systemic interactions that determine an organism's energetic state.  In  medicine , it could be mistakenly assumed that because a drug works for one individual, it will work for all, disregarding genetic and environmental factors that affect drug efficacy.  In  pharmacy , the fallacy might manifest in the belief that if one component of a compound is effective, the entire compound must be effective, which overlooks the role o...

The etymological fallacy occurs when an argument is made based on the assumption that the original or historical meaning of a word or phrase is necessarily similar to its actual present-day usage.  This fallacy ignores the natural development of language, where meanings shift over time due to cultural and contextual changes. This fallacy can lead to misunderstandings when terms evolve to encompass new discoveries or concepts.  Examples: The term 'atom' originally meant 'indivisible' in ancient Greek, but modern science has shown that atoms are composed of smaller particles like protons, neutrons, and electrons.  The word 'organic,' which etymologically relates to organs and living systems, but in chemistry , it refers to compounds containing carbon, regardless of their relation to life processes.  In physiology , the term 'hysteria' originally referred to a medical condition thought to be specific to women, derived from the Greek word for uterus, 'hy...

The continuum fallacy, also known as the fallacy of the beard or sorites fallacy, or the bald man fallacy, is a logical fallacy where someone argues that because there is no clear line between two extremes, they are actually the same thing. The continuum fallacy is a reminder of the complexities in categorizing natural phenomena and the importance of acknowledging the spectrum of states that exist. The continuum fallacy is often encountered in everyday reasoning and scientific discussions alike.  Examples: The paradox of the heap , which questions when a heap of sand ceases to be a heap as grains are removed, illustrates how small changes can lead to significant categorical differences, challenging the notion of clear-cut boundaries.  In the debate over what constitutes a living organism . Viruses, for instance, exhibit characteristics of both living and non-living entities, leading to disputes over their classification.  In the discussion of mental health disorders , whe...

The Burden of Proof fallacy, also known as "Onus Probandi," is a common logical fallacy that occurs when someone makes a claim and expects others to disprove it, rather than providing evidence to support their claim. This fallacy is seen in various fields, where individuals may use this tactic to shift the responsibility of proving their argument onto others. Examples: In physiology , this might manifest as a researcher stating a new therapy is effective without presenting data, expecting skeptics to prove its ineffectiveness.  In medicine , a doctor may assert a treatment's benefits without substantiation, placing the onus on others to show it's ineffective. Dentistry is not exempt; a new dental procedure may be touted as superior without comparative studies, and critics are asked to prove it isn't. In pharmacy , a claim that a drug is safe without clinical trial results is another example.  Astronomy is not immune; one might claim a celestial body has specific p...

The Circular Reasoning, also known as fallacy of begging the question or "petitio principii," which translates from Latin as "assuming the initial point, occurs when an argument's premise assumes the truth of the conclusion, rather than supporting it with independent evidence. This form of reasoning is problematic because it fails to provide any actual evidence for the claim, merely restating the initial assumption as proof. This type of reasoning is invalid because it fails to provide any actual evidence and simply restates the initial assumption as proof.  Examples: In economics , this might manifest in a statement like, "A market economy is the most efficient way to allocate resources because markets inherently lead to efficient outcomes." This argument is fallacious because it assumes markets are efficient without providing evidence for this efficiency.  In economics , one might encounter an argument that a policy is beneficial because it leads to posit...

The appeal to the Majority fallacy, also known as argumentum ad populum, bandwagon, or appeal to popularity, is a logical misstep when something is claimed to be true or good solely because it is widely believed or endorsed. This type of reasoning is frequently used in to persuade others to adopt a particular viewpoint. Examples: In medicine and pharmacy , a drug may be deemed effective because many patients use it, ignoring the placebo effect or the lack of rigorous clinical trials.  The once-popular notion that lactic acid is responsible for muscle soreness post-exercise was widely accepted due to its prevalence in fitness circles , despite a lack of robust scientific backing.  Astronomy is not immune to this fallacy either; historical beliefs such as the Earth being the center of the universe were held true simply because they were the prevailing views in Europe.  In genetics , the appeal to popularity fallacy can lead to the misinterpretation of genetic testing result...

The argument from repetition, also known as argumentum ad nauseam, is a logical fallacy that occurs when a statement is repeated so frequently that it is accepted as true without supporting evidence. Argument from repetition is a rhetorical device used to make a point by repeating the same argument over and over again. This technique is often used to emphasize a particular point, persuade others to agree with a particular viewpoint, or to create a sense of certainty and credibility.  Examples : In physiology , this fallacy might manifest as the repeated assertion that a specific diet universally leads to better health, despite conflicting studies.  In medicine , it could be the persistent claim that a particular drug is effective, ignoring evidence of adverse effects or limited efficacy.  Pharmacy may see this fallacy in the form of repeated endorsements of a supplement's benefits without substantial clinical trials. In astronomy , one might encounter the repeated proclam...

The appeal to tradition fallacy, also known as argumentum ad antiquitatem, is a logical fallacy that occurs when it is assumed that something is better or correct simply because it is older, traditional, or "has always been done." This type of reasoning is prevalent across all  fields. This fallacy overlooks the possibility of change and innovation that can lead to improvement. It's important to critically evaluate traditions and not accept them as valid reasoning without proper evidence of their efficacy in the present context. Examples: In physiology , this fallacy might manifest in the adherence to outdated exercise regimens without considering recent research that suggests more effective methods.  In medicine , the appeal to tradition can be seen when old treatment protocols are favored over new evidence-based practices. For instance, the persistent use of certain surgical techniques may be preferred due to historical precedence rather than clinical superiority. Pharm...

The Horse Laugh, also known as the appeal to ridicule or reductio ad absurdum, is a logical fallacy that dismisses an argument by mocking it or exaggerating it to the point of absurdity, rather than addressing its merits. This fallacy is commonly used to discredit opposing viewpoints without providing any valid counterarguments. Examples: In physiology , one might ridicule the complexity of the human body by sarcastically suggesting that it's so intricate, we might as well be aliens.  In pharmacy , the development of new drugs might be mocked with, "Why not just take a magic potion instead?"  In astronomy , the search for extraterrestrial life could be trivialized by saying, "We're looking for little green men now, are we?"  In neurology , the complexity of the brain could be mocked with, "So, we're just a bunch of neurons firing randomly?"  When discussing the economic impact of raising the minimum wage , one might encounter the fallacious arg...

The naturalistic fallacy, also known as the appeal to nature fallacy or argumentum ad naturam , is a logical error that occurs when something is claimed to be good, better, or more authentic simply because it is natural, while dismissing anything man-made as inferior or harmful.  Examples: In physiology , naturalistic fallacy might lead one to assume that natural bodily processes do not require medical intervention In astronomy , the fallacy might manifest in the romanticization of 'natural' celestial events while underestimating the potential hazards they can pose.  In economics , the fallacy could lead to the assumption that 'natural' market behaviors are always beneficial. In economics , the fallacy might cause one to reject technological advancements in favor of traditional methods, potentially hindering progress.  In economics , the assumption that 'free markets' are inherently good because they are perceived as 'natural' outcomes of human interacti...

The Personal Experience fallacy, also known as the anecdotal fallacy, is a logical misstep where individual stories or isolated examples are presented to make a broad generalization or as evidence for a general claim, disregarding more substantial, systematic, or scientific data.  This fallacy often manifests in arguments as a form of confirmation bias, where one's personal experiences are overemphasized to support a particular belief or argument, while contradictory evidence is ignored or undervalued. It's a common error in reasoning that can lead to flawed conclusions and is a reminder of the importance of relying on broader evidence beyond our own singular experiences.  Examples: In physiology , one might argue that because a particular diet worked for them, it must be the best option for everyone, ignoring the diverse nutritional needs of different individuals.  In medicine and pharmacy , this fallacy can be seen when a person insists a certain medication is ineffecti...