World PhiloMathematics & Design Society

The Suppressed Evidence fallacy, also known as the fallacy of suppressed evidence, cherry-picking, or Furtive fallacy, involves emphasizing certain aspects or evidence while hiding others to support a particular conclusion as well as significant outcomes are attributed to clandestine or deceptive actions, often involving a conspiracy or hidden misconduct by decision-makers. Also, if a researcher were to selectively report only the data that supports their hypothesis while disregarding data that contradicts it, they would be committing the Suppressed Evidence Fallacy. This fallacy can be particularly detrimental in fields that rely heavily on empirical evidence and objective analysis. Examples:  In economics , when evaluating the impact of a new tax policy, one might only highlight the positive effects on government revenue while ignoring the negative outcomes such as reduced consumer spending or business investment. The selective presentation of economic data to argue for a specific tr

The false dilemma fallacy, also known as the either/or fallacy , or the false dichotomy fallacy , is a common logical fallacy in which the arguer presents only two options as being available, when in reality there are more choices to consider .  This type of reasoning fails to consider a range of alternatives and forces a black-and-white view on complex issues. This fallacy is often used in complex issues and manipulate audiences into accepting a limited set of options.  Examples: In science , one might encounter the false dilemma in debates about nature versus nurture, where it is argued that a particular behavior is caused either by genetics or by the environment, neglecting the possibility of an interaction between the two. In physiology , this fallacy might manifest in the oversimplified view that one must either adhere strictly to natural remedies or rely solely on pharmaceutical interventions, ignoring the nuanced reality that a combination of both approaches can be beneficial. 

False attribution fallacy involves citing irrelevant, biased, or unqualified information to support an argument. The false attribution fallacy is a common logical fallacy in which one incorrectly attributes a particular cause or source to a certain effect or outcome. This type of fallacy is often used to manipulate or deceive others in order to support a particular agenda or belief. Examples: In the realm of physiology , an elevated heart rate could be attributed to a person's anxious nature, rather than the immediate physical activity they are engaged in. In medicine , the fallacy can result in misdiagnosis, where symptoms are attributed to common illnesses without considering rare diseases or external causes like exposure to toxins. Pharmacy professionals might fall into this trap by attributing a patient's non-response to medication to their non-compliance, rather than potential drug interactions or genetic factors affecting drug metabolism. Astronomers could mistakenly attr

False causation, also known as post hoc ergo propter hoc or false cause fallacy, causal fallacy or faulty causality, is a common logical fallacy that occurs when a cause-and-effect relationship is wrongly assumed without sufficient evidence to support it. This is a flawed conclusion because either such a relationship does not exist, or the evidence supporting it is insufficient. These fallacies can be particularly misleading in fields that rely heavily on empirical evidence and logical reasoning. Examples: In economics , one might observe that as ice cream sales increase, the rate of drowning deaths also increases. However, concluding that ice cream sales cause drowning would be a false cause fallacy; the actual cause is the warmer weather, which is a common factor that increases both the likelihood of people swimming and purchasing ice cream. One might observe that when interest rates fall, stock prices rise and conclude that lower interest rates cause the stock market to boom. Howeve

The fallacy of quoting out of context, also known as contextomy or quote mining, is an informal logical fallacy where a passage is removed from its surrounding matter in such a way that its intended meaning is distorted. This can be done intentionally, to mislead or persuade by deception, or unintentionally, due to misunderstanding of the passage's significance in its original context. The fallacy of quoting out of context is a pervasive issue that can distort the understanding and interpretation of information across various fields. Examples: In science , excerpts from scientific studies can be misleadingly cited to support commercial products or policies, when the complete study might not draw such definitive conclusions. In economics , this could manifest as selectively citing economic data or a statement from an economist to support a particular viewpoint, while ignoring other relevant information that would provide a more comprehensive understanding.  An economist's nuance

The fallacy of division is a logical error that involves assuming that what is true for a whole is also true for its individual parts. This type of reasoning can lead to incorrect conclusions in various fields.  Examples: In physiology , one might erroneously conclude that because the human body can resist certain temperatures, each cell can do the same, which is not necessarily the case.  In medicine , it might be assumed that if a medication works for a population, it will work for every individual within that group, disregarding personal allergies or conditions.  In pharmacy , one might think that if a compound has a specific effect, each component of that compound must have the same effect, which overlooks the complexity of chemical interactions. In dentistry , one might think that if sugar causes cavities, then every individual who consumes sugar will develop cavities, failing to consider oral hygiene and individual susceptibility. In genetics , it could be the mistaken belief tha

The fallacy of composition arises when it is assumed that what is true for individual members of a group must be true for the group as a whole.  Examples: If each component of a machine operates quietly, one might incorrectly conclude that the machine as a whole operates quietly, which may not be the case due to the interaction of parts.  In physiology , for instance, the fallacy of composition might lead one to assume that if a single cell can generate energy, then the entire organism must be brimming with energy, ignoring the complex systemic interactions that determine an organism's energetic state.  In  medicine , it could be mistakenly assumed that because a drug works for one individual, it will work for all, disregarding genetic and environmental factors that affect drug efficacy.  In  pharmacy , the fallacy might manifest in the belief that if one component of a compound is effective, the entire compound must be effective, which overlooks the role of synergistic or antagoni